Blood Donation Facts - Is the US Blood Supply in Jeopardy?

In recent decades, many operations that once required a blood transfusion using donated blood are now being performed without the use of blood products. In many of these cases, the patients receiving the operation voluntarily elect not to have a transfusion. These patients instead opt for alternative medical procedures, commonly referred to as bloodless surgery.

Patients' reasons for seeking alternatives to blood transfusions vary. Some have strict religious beliefs that do not allow for a transfusion; Jehovah's Witnesses are the most well known group of people who do not receive transfusions for these reasons. Others prefer a bloodless approach to surgery because they are concerned with the risks associated with receiving a blood transfusion with donor blood.

The rise of HIV and AIDS awareness in the mid to late 1980s is partially responsible for patient concerns with the safety of receiving donor blood. In the US, blood used in a transfusion comes from blood banks located throughout the country. According to the U.S. National Blood Data Resource Center, more than 15 million units of blood are donated every year. This volume of donated blood comes from more than eight million blood donors.

U.S. institutions collecting donor blood have strict donation requirements. Potential donors who have recently traveled abroad, received a piercing or tattoo, have certain medical conditions, or have been exposed to sexually transmitted diseases are just a few examples of people who might not qualify to donate blood. In fact, the complete list of health conditions, medications, lifestyle and travel habits that are screened during the blood donation process is exhaustive.

Yet, even with strict screenings, evaluations and testing procedures, there still are patients in the US who contract serious infectious diseases from donor blood received during a transfusion. There are documented cases of patients contracting HIV, Hepatitis (B and C) and West Nile Virus from contaminated blood.

In addition to the danger of virus and disease, the US blood supply may be at risk in other areas. Because of the strict blood donation requirements necessary to obtain the safest possible blood, shortages are not uncommon. This happens often for patients who require a rare blood type. However, even patients with common blood types (such as O and A positive) can encounter blood shortages. In many cases, the availability of a particular type of blood depends more on when and where the patient needs it rather than what blood type is needed.

Although these and other risks are present in the US blood supply, this by no means indicates that blood transfusions are "unsafe." While some patients prefer transfusion alternatives, such as bloodless surgery, the fact remains that millions of blood transfusions are successfully performed every day, and that these transfusions improve the health and survival of the transfusion recipient.

Ventilation Perfusion Abnormalities

Ventilation of unperfused alveoli leads to increase in dead space. Perfusion of unventilated alveoli results in the addition of unoxygenated blood to pulmonary venous blood. Taking effective minute ventilation to be 4 litres and pulmonary blood flow to be 5 litres, the normal ventilation perfusion ration is 0.8. Several conditions lead to imbalance in ventilation.

1. Normal variations

The upper parts of the lungs receive less blood than the bases, the hydrostatic pressure of the blood being higher at the base. Though the perfusion is unequal is the different portions of the lung, ventilation is more or les uniform with only minor differences.

2. Obstruction to pulmonary blood flow

Pulmonary blood flow is obstructed in pulmonary embolism, vascular changes due to chronic inflammation, destructive lesions of the lung, pulmonary hypertension and vasoconstriction due to hypoxia. Since carbondioxide is 20 times more easily diffusible than oxygen, the ventilation perfusion imbalances lead to hypoxia, but not to hypercapnia, except in the advanced cases.

Gas exchange by diffusion across the alveolar membrane

The alveolar membrane is 0.2 to 0.7 micrometer and it consists of a single layer of cells lining the alveoli, a thin basement membrane and the endothelial cells of the capillary. The alveolar capillaries contain mixed venous blood with carbondioxide and low oxygen tensions. Oxygen passes into the capillary and carbondioxide passes into the alveoli within a few milliseconds, when the alveolar membrane is thickened, gas exchanged is impaired. Diffusion of oxygen is affected early and, therefore, hypoxemia occurs first. Retention of Carbondioxide occurs only when the lesion is advanced. Several factors such as the tructures of the abnormalities affect diffusion capacity to a great extent. Hence the term "transfer factor" is used instead of diffusion capacity.

Blood Gases

Both oxygen and carbondioxide are carried by blood. Diffusion across the alveolar membrane depends upon the partial pressure of these gases on either side, of the diffusing capacity of these gases. Since carbondioxide is much more readily diffusible than oxygen, the level of carbondioxide in blood closely follows the partial pressure of carbondioxide in alveolar air. The pattern of oxygen dissociation curve of hemoglobin is such that partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood does not fall significantly even when the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli falls from 100millimeters Mercury to 80 millimeter Mercury. But when the alveolar Oxygen falls below 80 millimeters Mercury, arterial Oxygen falls steeply. The arterial Oxygen concentration does not closely follow the alveolar oxygen concentration due to this phenomenon. Oxygen is carried by blood mainly in combination with hemoglobin (1.34ml/g of Hb) and a small quantity as the dissolved form (0.003ml/100 ml blood/mm Hg of oxygen tension). The oxygen content in blood can be expressed either as the percentage saturation or the partial pressure. Arterial carbondioxide level is expressed in terms of its partial pressure. Alveolar gas concentrations are expressed in terms of their partial pressures.

Normal blood gas values

Arterial oxygen concentration (95-98)%; Partial pressure of arterial oxygen (80-100 mm Hg [11-14KPa]); Partial pressure of arterial carbondioxide (35-45 mm Hg [4.5-6.0KPa]).

Pulmonary mechanics- Work of breathing:

The total work involved in moving the thoracic cage, expanding the lungs and moving the gases in and out is known as the work of breathing.

Pulmonary compliance:

The elastic property of the lung is expressed in terms of pulmonary compliance. It is the distensibility of the lung per unit change in intrapleural pressure. Normal pulmonary compliance is about 0.2L per cm of water. In conditions like emphysema where there is loss of elastic tissue, lung is more distensible and in conditions like pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary edema compliance is diminished.

Airway resistance:

About 90% of resistance to flow of air is contributed by the larger air passages and 10% by smaller airways. Airway resistance is expressed as H2O/liter/second. Resistance to air flow offered by the air passages depends upon several factors like the caliber of the passage, driving pressure, rate of flow, type of flow (laminar or turbulent), density of the gas, and its viscosity. Airway resistance is calculated from values for atmospheric and alveolar pressures and the rate of air flow.

Airway resistance = atmospheric pressure - alveolar pressure

Rate of flow

In general, airway resistance is measured at a flow rate of 0.5 litres/sec. In normal, during quiet breathing the airflow resistance varies between 1.5 to 3cm water/litre sec. It reaches, high values (above 10cm of water/litres/sec) in obstructive airway disease.

1. The lung volumes: Several parameters are used to determine the ventilatory capacity of the lung.

• Tidal Volume (VT) is the volume of gas inspired or expired during each respiratory cycle. Normally it is 0.5 liters.

• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) is the maximal volume of gas that can be inspired from the end of tidal inspiration. Normal value is 2 liters..

• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) is the maximal volume of gas that can be expired from the end of tidal expiration. Normal value is 1.3 liters.

• Residual Volume (RV) is the volume of gas still remaining in the lungs after maximal expiration. Normal value is 1.6 liters.

2. The Lung Capacities

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the volume of gas contained in the lung at the end of maximal inspiration. Normal value is 5.4 liters.

Vital Capacity (VC) is the maximal volume of gas that can be expelled from the lung by forceful effort after maximal inspiration. In health, vital capacity is influenced by factors such as age, sex, position, body frame and state of physical conditioning. Average normal value is 3.8 liters.

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) is the maximal volume of gas that can be inspired from the resting expiratory level. Normal value is 2.5 liters.

Functional residual capacity (FRC) is the volume of gas remaining in the lung at the end of tidal expiration. Normal value is 2.9 liters.

Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) [timed vital capacity]: The volume of air expelled in the first one second of a forcible expiration following a full inspiration is called forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1). Normally FEV1 is above 75% of the total vital capacity, FEV2 is above 85%, and FEV3 is above 95%. Airways obstruction is indicated by FEV1 below 70% of normal.

Forced expiratory time (FET) is the total time taken for completing a forced expiration. Normally it is less than 4s.

Peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) is the maximum rate than can be sustained during the first 10 millisecs, of a sudden forced expiration after a full inspiration. The PEFR depends up on the height and surface area of the individual. Nomogras are available for reference.

Maximal expiratory flow rate (MEFR): This is the flow rate at a specified portion of a forced expiration after a maximal inspiration, e.g MEFR 300-1300 denoted flow rates for 1 liter of expired gas after the first 300 ml has been breathed out.

Maximal inspiratory flow rate (MIFR) This is the flow rate at a specified portion of a forced inspiration.

Maximal mid-expiratory flow rate (MMFR): This is the velocity of air expressed as liters per second during the middle third of the total expired volume. It is also denoted as forced expiratory flow (FEF 25-75%). In normal the values vary with age and height of the individuals. Average values lie between 1.5 and 5.5 liters/sec in men. Determination of MMFR helps in detecting borderline cases of airways obstruction.

Maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV), or maximal breathing capacity is the total volume of air breathes by a subject using maximum effort over a period of 1 min.

Air velocity index (AVI): The ratio of the percentage of predicted MVV to the percentage of the predicted vital capacity is called air velocity index. The normal range is from 0.8 to 1.2.

Diffusing capacity: This is the volume of a gas transported across the alveolo-capillary membrane in 1 min for one unit of pressure gradient. It is expressed as ml/min/mm of Hg difference in partial pressure.

Closing capacity: During inspiration the air centers different portions of the lung in a definite order. The upper portions fill first and then the middle and lower parts in order. During expiration air escapes in the reverse order, the basal portions emptying first and the apical regions being the last. As a result, the smaller airways at the bases start to close even while air from apices is escaping. The volume of air contained in the lungs at the point where the airways first start to close is called closing capacity.

Closing Volume (CV): The difference between the closing capacity and the residual volume is termed closing volume. This is often expressed as a percentage of the vital capacity. In normal subjects below 40 years it is less than 20%. The CV increases with age. In many cases increase in closing volume may be the only detectable abnormality in impending airway obstructions.

Assessment of Pulmonary function:

Different aspects of respiratory functions can be subjected to investigational study, these include:

1. Gas transport down the airways,

2. Gas mixing within alveoli

3. Gas transfer across the alveolocapillary membrane, and

4. Lung perfusion.

Entry of air down the airways and its return can be measured using static and dynamic spirometry. Body plethysmography is employed to measure lung compliance and airways resistance. FEV1 and VC which are the most important parameters to assess the ventilatory capacity, are estimated by spirometry.

Peak expiratory flow rate:

It is measured using Wright's peak flow meter. This is an easy and convenient method to assess airways obstruction. Other methods to assess PEFR employ the peak flow gauge and the De Bono Whistle, Distribution of inspired air in different parts of the lungs is studied by single breath oxygen test.

General Considerations of the Respiratory System

The main function of the respiratory organs is to provide a constant supply of oxygen to the tissues and to remove carbondioxide from them through the lungs. Ultimately this gas exchange occurs between the alveolar air and mixed venous blood in the capillaries across the alveolo-capillary membrane.

The alveolocapillary membrane has a total area of 75 meter square in an adult. Air is taken in through the air passages comprising the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the bronchioles. The terminal portions of the air passages- the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts- sub-serve the function of gas exchange. The part above the vocal cords is termed the upper respiratory tract and the parts below are called the lower respiratory tract.

The trachea which is 11cm long is kept permanently open by the presence of C-shaped cartilages on its wall. Several mucous glands present in the mucous membrane provide mucus which moistens the surface and takes part in ciliary action. The trachea divides into the right and left bronchi. The bronchi are similar to the trachea in structure. The right main bronchus is 1-2.5cm in length and it is in direct line with the trachea. This fact makes it more vulnerable for obstruction by foreign bodies entering through the trachea. The right main bronchus divides into branches which supply the right upper lobe, middle lobe, and lower lobe. The left main bronchus is longer (5cm) and it forms an angle of 50-100 degrees with the right main bronchus. It divides into two branches which supply the upper and lower lobes. Further division of the lobar bronchi gives rise to segmental bronchi which supply bronchopulmonary segments.

Bronchopulmonary segments
The bronchopulmonary segment is a wedge of lung tissue supplied by each segmental bronchus along with the corresponding branches of the pulmonary artery and vein. The bronchopulmonary segments act as independent units and are separated by fibrous septa.

Divisions of the bronchial tree:
After 8-13 successive divisions the segmental bronchi break up into the smallest bronchi. They continue further as bronchioles. The bronchioles have no cartilage and mucous glands on their walls. The bronchioles divide further and the terminal bronchioles divide further and the terminal bronchioles are formed after the fourth division. The terminal bronchioles give rise to respiratory bronchioles. Alveoli begin to appear on the walls of the respiratory bronchioles. As the respiratory bronchioles divide further, the number of alveoli arising from them progressively increases. Normal adult lung contains about 300 million alveoli. Rapid division of the respiratory bronchioles results in enormous increase in surface area. The terminal portions of the respiratory bronchioles divide into alveolar ducts and sacs. Alveoli sacs. Alveoli are 0.1-0.2mm in diameter. Up to the respiratory bronchioles the airways only conduct air passively, but beyond this they, also take part in gaseous exchange. The part supplied by a single terminal bronchiole is called an "acinus". An alveolar duct with its distal connections is called a "primary lobule". A group of primary lobules separated by connective tissue septa form a "secondary lobule".

Pores of Kohn and Canals of Lembert:
Pores of Kohn are openings connecting alveoli, which allow communication between them and sometimes even between adjacent segments. Canals of Lembert are short communications lines by epithelium which exist between distal bronchioles and some of the neighboring alveoli. These take part in collateral ventilation between different regions of the lung.

The Lining of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles consists of ciliated columnar epithelium containing goblet cells. The respiratory bronchioles are lined by non-ciliated cuboidal epithelium. The lining epithelium of the alveoli is flattened and it comprises of two types of cells- type I and type II pneumonocytes-arranged on a basement membrane. Type I pneumonocytes are numerous and they cover most of the inner surface of the alveoli. Gas exchange occurs mainly across these cells. Type II pneumonocytes are smaller in number. They contain lamelleated osmiophilic inclusion bodies which are thought to be of lysosomal nature. Surfactant is produced or stored in them.

Secretions of the airways and ciliary action:
Mucus is secreted by the mucous glands and goblet cells. Mucous glands are seen all along from the trachea to the smallest bronchi. They are most numerous in the medium-sized bronchi and are absent from bronchioles. In the bronchioles there are only a few goblet cells. Vagus is secretomotor for the mucous glands. The goblet cells respond to direct irritation. The mucous contains acid and neutral polysaccharides mainly, and variable quantities of sodium, potassium, albumin, globulin, specific antibodies, lysozyme and transferring. In addition to its antibacterial action, the mucus provides a milieu for the cilia to function. Ciliary action helps in removing particulate matter. Each cell contains about 200 cilia, each being 6-7 micrometer long. By successive rhythmic movement, they produce a wave motion passing regularly from cell to cell. As optimum amount of mucus of the correct thickness (5 micrometer) and optimum viscosity is essential for proper ciliary function. Drying up of tracheal secretions, increase in thickness, and viscosity of the mucous layer, inhalation of irritants, excessive intake of alcohol and certain drugs like cocaine impair ciliary function and predispose infection of the respiratory tract. Ciliary function is impaired in inherited disorders such as Kartagener's syndrome.

Surfactant
This is a substance produced by type II pneumonocytes from the 30th week of intrauterine life. It lines the alveoli. It contains an insoluble lipoprotein (dipalmitoyl lecithin) which forms a thin layer at the air-fluid interface and lowers surface tension. Surfactant prevents the alveoli from collapsing by reducing surface tension within the alveoli. Absence of surfactant results in the collapse of small alveoli during expiration and hyperinflation of the larger alveoli during inspiration. In addition, increase in surface tension leads to transudation of fluid from capillaries into the alveoli. Absence of surfactant leads to the formation of hyaline membrane disease in the newborn and adult respiratory distress syndrome in adults. Impairment of pulmonary blood flow and prolonged administration of dry oxygen or air leads to reduction in surfactant.

The Pleura:
The Lung is covered by visceral pleura on its surface and the thoracic cavity is lined by the parietal pleura. The space between them contains 10-20 ml of serous fluid having a protein content of 1.77g/dl. Pleural cavity is only a potential space. During inspiration the lung fills the pleural space. The pleural space is under negative pressure so that the lung is kept in apposition with the parietal pleura. At the end of a quiet expiration the pleural pressure is about 5cm of water. The pressure inside the pleural cavity is not uniform throughout. The negative pressure is higher at the apices than at the bases. The pleural fluid is formed at the parietal pleura and absorbed at the visceral pleura.

What We Should Know About the Physiology of the Pulmonary System

Gas exchange between the blood and the alveoli is brought about by different processes which include:
• Ventilation of the alveoli;
• Mixing of inspired air and alveoli air and
• Diffusion of gases across the alveolar membrane.

Under resting conditions, 5 litres of blood perfuse the pulmonary capillaries, and 6 litres of air enter and leave the lungs every minute. 250-300ml of oxygen is taken by the pulmonary capillary blood to the tissues and 200-250ml of carbondioxide is left out into the alveolar air. With exercise these values go up considerably.

The nervous control of breathing
Respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre situated in the medulla and pons. The respiratory centre consists of inspiratory center, expiratory center and pneumotaxic enter which control the rhythm, depth, and rate of respiration. Principal muscles of respiration are the diaphragm and intercostals muscles. When there is demand for increasing the ventilation, the accessory muscles of respiration come into play.

Chemical control of breathing
Rise in carbon-dioxide tension in the arterial blood is the strongest direct stimulus to the respiratory centre to increase ventilation. Next in importance is hypoxia. Hypoxia stimulates the chemoreceptors of the carotid and aortic bodies attached to external carotid artery and ascending aorta respectively. A fall in pH stimulates breathing directly by its action on the respiratory center.

Cheyne-Stokes breathing
In this type of abnormal rhythm of respiration, there is increase in the rate and depth of respiration, which reach a maximum and then they come down to reach a period of apnea. These cycles repeat. Cheyne-Stokes respiration is indicative of serious functional impairment of the respiratory centre. It is seen in Cardiac failure, metabolic acidosis, increased intracranial tension, narcotic poisoning, and sometimes even during sleep.

Biot's breathing
This is a type of irregular breathing in which 3-4 respirations occur in clusters with apneic pauses. The respiration resembles sighs. This is commonly seen in meningitis and brain damage.

Gas exchange in the alveoli

Air in the conducting airways is functionally inert and its volume is called the "anatomical dead space". Functionally effective ventilation that the alveoli receive is called "alveolar ventilation". When the alveoli are not perfused with blood, ventilation becomes ineffective. Ventilation occurring in alveoli which are not properly perfused with blood is called "dead space ventilation". Gas exchange in the alveoli is adversely affected by uneven ventilation, uneven perfusion or defective diffusion.

Causes of alveolar hypoventilation
• Obstructive airway disease which produces uneven distribution of ventilation.
• Thoracic deformities and neuromuscular disease like myasthenia and poliomyelitis.
• Conditions causing central respiratory failure
• Reduction in functional lung volume as in atelectasis, fibrosis etc.

Hyperventilation
This occurs commonly in major pulmonary embolism, anxiety, neurocirculatory asthenia, meningitis, encephalitis, therapy with drugs like epinephrine, poisoning with salicylates of aspirin, hyperthyroidism, hypoxia, and acidosis. Hyperventilation results in excessive removal of Carbondioxide and consequent alkalosis.

Implementation of Safety Programs for Safe Handling of Hazardous Drugs

Innumerable reports have exposed the destructive affects of exposures to hazardous drugs to the healthcare workers indulged in all sorts of drug related activities. All the work places where drug activities are carried out are found to be contaminated by the noxious chemicals used for the manufacture of drugs. From the urine tests of various workers, it has become clear that they have significant amounts of these noxious chemicals in their body. These chemicals can induce various health disorders. Hence, safe handling of hazardous drugs is very essential to prevent these workers. All the healthcare workers and other professionals of the healthcare organizations must actively participate in controlling the exposures to perilous drugs. This article is all about the numerous safety guidelines and measures that should be implemented in all the workplaces for the safe handling of perilous drugs.

There are numerous workers that are engaged in drug development industries and other pharmaceutical manufacturing industries. These workers could be the victim of aerosols, vapors and harmful emissions that are produced during the different stages of the drug development procedures. There are various chances of exposure to these toxic emissions through the dermal contact. These exposures can also affect through the contaminated food stuffs and other food products.

Numerous safe handling guidelines have been formulated by different healthcare units. The workers and other employers must follow all these safety guidelines to prevent the surroundings from getting contaminated. Precautionary measures should be properly implemented for the safe handling of hazardous drugs. Safety devices such as personal protective equipments, biological cabinets and closed system drug transfer devices must be used for reducing the risks of exposures.

Strict adherence to all the safety guidelines and proper implementation of all the safety measures can minimize the risks of exposures to hazardous drugs to a maximum extent.

Cures For Yeast Infections in Women - Causes and the Ultimate Prevention

Yeast infection affects most women of any age and for varied reasons and causes, this is one of the most common vaginal disease women suffers. Though, yeast infection may not be a very critical disease in its nature, it causes serious discomfort, itching and restlessness in the person. It will be a very good idea, to get it treated as soon as one noticed that she has acquired this slow but harmful infection. A qualified medical professional should be contacted after you should have try home remedy which most time is very effective.

These yeast infections also exist in other forms such as mouth thrush which changes the color of the mouth and cause white substances to be deposited on the tongue and the mouth too. Another kind of yeast infection is the Esophagitisare, this makes swallowing to be very painful. Other forms cause rashes and itching on the surface of the skin. There is one form which stay in the blood stream and this seems to be much feared because any illness in the blood system can be poisonous and deadly too to the body system.

The signs and symptoms of these kinds of candidiasis may not be comfortable or pleasing to the sufferer. Most times there may be pains, irritation, and burning sensation, itching in the vagina, swelling of the vagina's vulva and offensive odor from the vagina too. There may be discharge from the vagina if the yeast infection has stayed long untreated; this discharge can be whitish or yellowish in color. The discharge is use by the medical professional to diagnose the type of yeast infection the patient, is having so that proper treatment can be administered.

Treating yeast infection properly is important in order to cure this illness. A qualified medical professional should be consulted and the prescribed treatment should be taken as directed by the physician. The anti-fungal drugs may be given by the medical expert which will destroy the organisms which are fungus in nature but it must be noted that the fungus is very stubborn in nature and tends to return after treatment, when the patient goes back to the initial condition before the treatment, so care must taken as to guard against the reoccur of the yeast infections by properly disinfecting any material used prior to the treatment and abstaining from contact with any infected person again.

After the treatment, you should reduce your antibiotics intake because they decrease your pH value making it to be more acidic thereby encouraging the growth the yeast organisms. A high personal hygiene should be maintained too as the fungi thrive in dirty and moist environment. Abstinence from sugar or foods with high sugar content is a must as to discourage the increase of the fungus too. You should eat a lot of fruits and vegetables and keep your underwear clean and wear cotton materials, not silk that allows the free flow of air within your system. More books and literatures about the Yeast infections and Candida Albicans should be read so as to know how to stay protected from this infection. The treatment should be continued for one week after the symptoms have completely disappeared as to prevent a relapse of the infection.

Pharmaceutical Plants Focusing More on Waste-Treatment

Pharmaceutical manufacturing is the most important part of pharmaceutical engineering. The manufacturing process undergoes numerous steps for the manufacturing of common as well as crucial diseases. The manufacturing process starts from the identification of appropriate raw drug materials and ends with the conversion of these raw materials into important medicines. Waste management is mandatory for all the pharmaceutical manufacturing plants as there are great chances for the production of various waste materials including liquid and solid wastes. There are various chances of hazardous air emissions during each step of the drug manufacture.

To protect all the workers engaged in different steps of drug manufacture from being exposed to the hazardous air emissions, various Environmental Assessment (EA) programs are highly efficient. This EA program mainly includes the study of various biodegradable, chemical and physical aspects of several noxious drug byproducts. This program mainly takes into account the parent drugs. Numerous tests based on the photolysis process and aqueous toxicity is also done by this program. The Pharmaceutical engineers mainly focus on the waste treatment and management to provide a secure and reliable working environment.

Numerous reports have been published by several drug development industries for the entire knowledge on the characteristics of the wastes and their byproducts. The main components of the drug pollutants are the particulate matters. Volatile organic compounds also form a major part of it. When all the equipments used in the drug manufacturing industries are cleaned, various highly noxious aqueous exhausts are produced.

Finding the substitutes for the fatal drug ingredients is one of the major areas of concern for all the pharmaceutical engineers. Thus, we can say that pharmaceutical engineering is one of the most important branches that have contributed a lot to the medical world for the betterment of the mankind.

Medical Supply Store Websites - Things to Look For

In dealing with medical supply store websites, you need to check them out for legitimacy, security, and quality of products. The expense of medical supplies in brick-and-mortar offline establishments can be sky high, but with the use of the internet for businesses to reach the entire world with little or no advertising expense, distribution volume can make prices lower than at any other time in recent history. Due to this ease in commerce however, just about anyone can throw together a website to make a pretty penny - so there needs to be a way to ensure that you are dealing with professionals. Let's look further into just how this can be done...

When you find a medical supply store online, see to it that the website is indeed owned by the person actually distributing the wares. There are some sites out there that are merely affiliate portals with commission tracking links to many other actual establishments. This is all fine and good, and in no way dealing badly, but if you were to ever require that a return be made on a few products purchased through one of these, you may find that the website owner is not the one to deal with. There would have to be the other companies you actually made purchases with to contact, perhaps many. This can be quite a hassle, especially since not every establishment may have the same or similar return policies.

Another thing to check out with a medical supply store online is security - make sure that all monetary transactions are encrypted. Further, see that there are a number of ways to pay offered, such as with all major credit cards, through the use of different online banking establishments (like PayPal, or Google Checkout, etc.), and others. If you are in the medical field and are looking for supplies for your place of business, you might want to see if they allow payment through online checking, and if they can work with corporate accounts.

Another big thing to watch for is you'll need to look into what they offer for a return policy. Make sure that everything about the policies they have regarding returns is every bit agreeable with you. While offering credit towards future purchases as a means of returns is quite alright as a single option among many, it really isn't all that great if this is their sole and only means of refunding you with what you have paid them. Medical supply store websites need to be full of options both for payment, and receiving refunds from them. If one site leaves much to be desired, move on to another one and check them out. There's certainly a lot of competition out there, so use this to your advantage.

Trustworthy sources for high end medical equipment and supplies that can be obtained at a very low expense are invaluable to work with.

Hospital Medical Supplies - Locating Quality Sources

Hospital medical supplies are not the cheapest items in the world, to say the very least. Or that is, at least not in conventional establishments where one can go to purchase them from. But there are situations that allow for quality, high end medical and lab equipment and supplies to be acquired for inordinately low cost. What's the one problem? Quality of service might be sacrificed for quality of goods at unheard of prices, with some companies in this situation. What's the situation? Online medical supply websites - with the utmost ease of being able to reach the entire world, and due to the huge volume of resultant sales, prices can be set incredibly low which only serves to beef up business further. So how do we locate the best of these and not sacrifice quality of service?

Well, when you locate a source online for hospital medical supplies, there are a few things to look into in order to assure yourself that you'd be dealing with a quality professional offering quality in service, as well as in wares. First up, you need to make certain that the website that you are on is owned by the person doing the actual selling of the items. What I mean is this... there are some sites out there that are affiliates for a few different companies. If they can generate sales for these companies, then the earn percentage commissions on each sale, so they post up special links so that when you click through them and make a purchase, they'll get their commission.

Now this is all well and good, and certainly nothing dastardly, it's just a simple means of marketing hospital medical supplies, and making them more available to the buying public... but if you were ever faced with the need to return some items for a refund, you'd then find that the person owning the site doesn't deal with that at all, but you'd have to go to the company - or number of different companies - that you had actually made the purchases with, in order to secure your refund. This goose chase game of 'pass-the-buck' could get troublesome and frustrating.

Another way to ensure a quality experience purchasing items through an online hospital medical supplies website is to check for payment options. The best establishments allow for various methods, such as all major credit cards, online checking (if you're in the medical profession and need supplies for your place of business, see if they deal with corporate accounts), or through online banking institutions such as Google Checkout or PayPal. Check into the website's return policies as well, and see that they are agreeable to you. Make certain that there are options available to you in this regard as well.

Trustworthy sources for high end medical equipment and supplies that can be obtained at a very low expense are invaluable to work with.

Drugs For a Cancer Treatment Guide

Drug research and development for treating cancer has become a multibillion-dollar industry. Hundreds of medicines are available to limit the spread of cancer as well as treat the disease. Summaries of these medications, their side effects, and breakdowns of combinations of medications are available on the Internet. In addition to doctors' orders, patients should gather as much information as possible about their drugs for cancer treatment in order to identify any harmful side effects and prevent any further bodily harm from occurring.

· Prostate cancer. Advodart and Cardura XL are two common oral medications used in the treatment of prostate cancer. The former is used to shrink the prostate when it is enlarged by lowering the amounts of hormone responsible for the growth. The latter medication is used to relax the muscles in the prostate that lead to the feeling of needing to urinate frequently and in the middle of the night.

· Breast cancer. Abraxane, Aredia, and Arimidex are three different drugs used to treat breast cancer. The first two are used through an IV, and the last is taken orally. Abraxane stops cancer cell growth. High blood calcium levels commonly occur with cancer, and Aredia is used to bring these down to a normal level. Arimidex is only used by women who have experienced menopause and need their estrogen levels balanced.

· Lung cancer. Alimta is a lung cancer medication that stops the growth of cancer cells in the body which ultimately stops the cancer from spreading. This medication is used to treat the type of lung cancer that results from exposure to asbestos. Ingesting photofrin increases the body's sensitivity to light, so this medication is used in conjunction with laser treatment to decrease the size of the tumor.

· Skin cancer. Carac is a topical medication that is used in the treatment of skin cancer by killing rapidly growing abnormal skin cells. Efudex is a medication that is used to treat overgrowths of skin related to cancer, and it is also used topically. Surgery, laser lights, and chemotherapy are other forms of skin cancer treatment.

These are a few of the medications that are used to treat America's most common types of cancer. Often, a combination of drugs is required to stop the spread of cancer and eliminate it. Drugs for cancer are prescribed by a doctor to treat an individual's unique stage and form of illness. Carrying out extensive research on these drugs will ensure the best possible results for patients as they become more knowledgeable about their own treatment process.

Start Looking For Angular Cheilitis Natural Cures

There is nothing to be surprised about when you observe that a lot of sufferers are more interested to find alternative methods of treating angular cheilitis. This is because natural cures have been well-accepted by previous sufferers for the reason that it has proven its worth in clearing out the condition without bringing in any negative side effects. Additionally, natural cures are considered as more affordable options in treating any condition including perleche or angular stomatitis; other names this condition is known as. This is actually why many simple homemakers are interested to go for this kind of treatment option.

Looking into conventional medications for angular cheilitis would make you understand that unlike natural cures, doctors would require application of ointments and intake of medications in liquid or tablet forms. Typically, the course of treatment is advised depending on the severity of the condition. The extent in which the condition has spread is also another determining factor considered before prescribing the dosage and duration that a particular medication should be taken. On the other hand, home remedies for angular cheilitis are easier to use and take for the treatment of the condition. These natural substances are not only easy to find but also not expensive to buy. Practices used as part of the treatment process are also not difficult to carry out.

Natural cures for angular cheilitis serve the primary purpose of eliminating the infection and all other conditions and factors that contribute to its development particularly in the oral cavity and nearby areas wherein splits and cracks are usually located. While it is true that the foremost reason why this disease has developed is not yet confirmed as of the present time, medical studies and researches revealed that there are some factors that have shown clear links for its occurrence.

Most medical researches link the condition to saliva buildup combined with yeast involvement as primary causes why lesions in the lip corners have sprung out. Along with this revelation, comes another fact that vitamin and mineral deficiencies particularly with Vitamin B insufficiencies are also related to cheilitis development. There are also cases when the condition comes as a result or part of other diseases affecting the immune system of a person as well as long-term exposure to extreme weather conditions.

Nobody wants to suffer from a condition for a very long time, what more to allow the disease to spread and cause further damage to the body. This is not impossible if you left the condition untreated for such a long time just because you are assuming that it can heal on its own. While this can be true in some cases, this should not be something to rely on. In point of fact, the case of this condition that heals on its own are the same cases that comes back with more annoying signs and symptoms. You should not allow this to happen all the time but it will; unless you take the initiative to look for an effective natural cures that can eliminate and sweep away the disease completely and speedily.

Mystery Disorders

So why is it that one can go to ten different specialists, get no diagnosis or effective treatment, and that same individual can then come to see me and get better in a few days? Am I just very lucky? Is it the power of suggestion? Well, I can tell you, that's not it.

Here is why.

Most specialists do what they do very well. They excel in and have vast studies preparing for their particular area of expertise. However, most human suffering is not always textbook. That is to say that when a doctor studies disorders, they do not always match up with what we might see in our offices. Further, most doctors tend to be trained such that they are examining you with a goal of matching up your symptoms with illnesses that are referenceable in a medical textbook. Many disorders can be diagnosed in this manner; however, the vast majority of human suffering is not from these "named" diseases. It is from "shades of gray" symptoms that do not typically match up well with any disorder, yet are real symptoms for the patient.

Since the doctor cannot find any disease that matches your conditions symptoms, you are simply told to "learn to live with it", or worse, "it's all in your head." Few doctors examine patients cumulatively just trying to get a grasp of what might be realistically happening with that person rather than just trying to find the matching diagnosis code to send to the insurance carrier. Well when you think about this, you can see how easy it is to have no idea of what may be happening to explain your symptoms. It is easy to see how all of the individuals with disorders that fall into the "shades of gray" area are just going to be brushed off as being odd or unrealistic problems.

The reason why my office has so much success in this area, is because when I examine patients, I do not have a predisposed opinion of what disease I am trying to rule out. I look at them for what they are, a human being with symptoms, and I use logic to rationalize what neurophysiology is not working properly, and more importantly, what could be done to fix it. My office has had great success treating patients with difficult disorders in this regard. Because of our success, we routinely see patients who come from other states and spend a week with me so that they may get better.

So if you have been told to "learn to live with it", or have been going from doctor to doctor without answers, you are my best patient. We always offer a complementary consultation if you prefer one prior to examination as we understand that you may have many questions simply out of years of frustration in dealing with the medical system.

Medical Equipment Distributor - How to Find a Good One Online

A medical equipment distributor is needed by those in the medical profession, those who require constant in-home medical care on a day to day basis, and those who provide such care. But the problem with acquiring needed equipment through conventional sources and supply warehouses is that the price can be quite expensive. Finding such a distributor online however, we can see that this is clearly not so. But are all such equipment supply websites good sources to place orders with? What are some of the things we need to look for in order to find the best source? Let's examine the answer...

To find a medical equipment distributor online is really no difficult task at all - there are many indeed. But not all of them are the best to work with. For example, some of these sites may be portal sites. What this means is that it's a website offering goods and services, but services that are offered by a number of third parties. On the main site, there are links to click on which take you to the items you are shopping for, and you can make your purchases through the main site, but in reality, you are actually purchasing goods from the other third party sites represented on the main site.

If you find a medical equipment distributor website like this, you might find that it's quite convenient to place orders for things through the one site, and it's a great way to have a vast amount of variety of items on one website... but if you ever found the need to make returns and request a refund on those returns, then herein lies the hassle. You'll find that the owner of the website doesn't deal with such matters, and you'd be redirected to the company (or many companies) through which your order was actually placed and processed. This could also become a problem because not all companies share the same return policy. For this reason, it's best to make sure that the website owner is the person directly offering the wares represented.

Some other things to watch for in online medical equipment distributor websites can include security - see to it that all monetary transactions are encrypted. Further, make sure the site offers multiple payment options, such as through PayPal, Google Checkout, or other online banking establishments, major credit cards, and perhaps even online checking. If you are a doctor or other professional in the medical field looking for equipment for your place of business, you might consider inquiring if the site owner can work with corporate accounts. Keeping all of these things in mind when you shop around on the internet for a valuable resource for what you need to acquire, you'll be sure to find a good company to work with for all of your needs.

Pulse Oximeters For the Armed Forces

The armed forces encounter the same medical issues as regular patients do if not under more complex and critical situations. Armed forces medics need an effective and easy to carry medical device to quickly and accurately measure the vital signs of injured soldiers. A portable fingertip oximeter from Landon Medical has proved to be a just what the armed forces needs for vital sign monitoring out in the field.

A portable fingertip oximeter is a device that measures blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) and pulse rate with accuracy and easy. Through the use of innovative pass thru technology the oximeter can measure pulse rate and Sp02 in any climate setting including extreme cold, heat, humidity, and altitude. Previously, medics had to rely on bulky, heavy pulse oximeter machines that were not very easy to transport quickly in the battlefield. However, now with the advent of portable oximetry technology from Landon Medical, medics can perform their jobs more efficiently and effectively while saving lives.

In particular two Landon Medical models are a great fit for armed forces applications. The LM-6100 is a portable, hand held pulse oximeter that provides all the features of a pulse oximeter, but also provides data storage capability that can subsequently be downloaded and analyzed on a computer back at base for medical diagnosis. The LM-6100 oximeter has excellent durability which can withstand drops and vibrations often experienced in the battle field. Small enough to fit in the pocket of the medic, the LM-6100 oximeter has been manufactured specially with the needs of armed forces medical personnel out in the field.

Landon Medical leads the pulse oximeter in providing the most cost effective and effective pulse oximeters in industry. With great expertise in dealing with government agencies and branches, Landon Medical continuously strives to develop more oximeter technology keeping in mind the needs of our men and women of the armed forces.

Medical Equipment Distributors - The Key Points of a Good Online Source

Medical equipment distributors online are many, and for the most part, most of them provide good services, in a timely manner, and offer quality products at unheard of cost effectiveness. But not all of them are the best to work with. Prices are exceedingly far lower than with conventional establishments, such as with actual brick-and-mortar shops and warehouses that deal in such equipment, due to the fact that an entire world of customers can be reached for little to no advertising expense, and as a result of the sheer volume of generated sales, companies can afford to set prices inordinately low. But due to this very same ease in setting up shop on the internet and moving product quite speedily, it's very easy for just about anyone to hop into this business, even before a good rapport has been established with these companies. Therefore, some are not as adept at providing quality service as others. So, how can we separate the gold from the dross?

Things to look for in online medical equipment distributors include security of information during monetary transactions made, a variety of options through which to make payments, an acceptable return policy, and sole ownership of the website online as well as being the actual distributor of the goods represented on the website itself. Keeping these in mind when searching for a good and trustworthy online resource for what you need, you'll be certain to find a worthy company to deal with. Let's look further into these...

An online medical equipment distributor website should have information regarding the security of monetary transactions posted thereon - often, this is found on the order page. It should tell you that all monetary transactions are encrypted and operated through a secure server. There should also be a number of payment options available, such as online checking (if you run a medical business, see if they accept corporate accounts), online banking establishments like PayPal or Google Checkout, and should also accept all major credit cards.

The medical equipment distributors online that are the best to be dealing with should also be owned and run by the same person or persons offering the equipment represented on the site. It shouldn't be an affiliate site with links pointing to products being sold by other companies, through which the website owner can earn a commission through sales. This isn't a bad business practice, and in fact makes things rather convenient on the buying end of things. However, if you needed to request a refund on items returned, you'll find that the website owner doesn't deal with returns, and that you will have to contact all of the separate companies you actually made your purchases through. Finally, check out the return policy - make sure you agree with it, and that it doesn't only credit returns toward future purchases. This is a nice option to have among others, but not as a sole means of a refund.

Medical Laboratory Equipment - How to Find the Best Source Online

Medical laboratory equipment can be exceedingly expensive, getting them through conventional means, in actual brick-and-mortar stores and warehouses, but getting them from online websites can be phenomenally cheaper. There are reasons for this, and these same reasons also create a situation of needing to weed through the number of sources to find the right one that would suit our needs perfectly.

Being able to reach the entire world of potential customers with ease and little to no expense can generate an unheard of customer base, which allows for prices to become quite inordinately low, due to the sheer volume of sales. The amount of competition online in this niche also lowers prices insanely. But due to this same ease in setting up shop and generating revenue, almost anyone can jump into this. So then, how can we find the most professional companies to deal with?

To locate the best medical laboratory equipment resources online, there are a few key points to watch for, including ownership of goods, security of monetary transactions, return policies and payment options. First up, let's look at ownership of goods; some websites offering these wares are actually offering other companies' products. They are what are known as "affiliate websites", as the links on them take you to make purchases through other companies, whether this is made clear to the consumer or not.

In this way, the website runner makes commissions on sales. This is all well and fine, and it does help to offer a wide variety of products on one screen, but if you were to ever be in the need to make a return and request a refund, the website owner would not be the one to turn to. You would be redirected to make your inquiries to the companies you actually made the purchases through, and not all of them will likely have the same return policies.

Next to look for in an online medical laboratory equipment resource is security. You'll want to make certain that any and all monetary transactions are made through a secure server and are encrypted for your protection. There should be a statement telling you of their security on the order form page. Further, see to it that there are a number of payment options to choose from, such as all major credit cards, online checking, and payment through online banking systems such as PayPal, AlertPay, Google Checkout, and so on.

Finally, check out the website's return policies, and be sure to see if you agree with the way they have things set up. For example, having refunds credited toward future purchases may be nice to have as one option among others, but not as the only option available. Keep all these things in mind and check on each one whenever you shop around for a medical laboratory equipment source online.

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